<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.3 20210610//EN" "JATS-journalpublishing1-3.dtd">
<article article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.3" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xml:lang="ru"><front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">intertrends</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title xml:lang="ru">Международные процессы</journal-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="en"><trans-title>International Trends / Mezhdunarodnye protsessy</trans-title></trans-title-group></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="ppub">1728-2756</issn><issn pub-type="epub">1811-2773</issn><publisher><publisher-name>AEFIR</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.17994/IT.2019.17.4.59.9</article-id><article-id custom-type="elpub" pub-id-type="custom">intertrends-549</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Research Article</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="section-heading" xml:lang="ru"><subject>ПИСЬМО В РЕДАКЦИЮ</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="section-heading" xml:lang="en"><subject>LETTER TO THE EDITOR</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>Международный опыт применения математико-статистических алгоритмов прогнозирования преступности</article-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="en"><trans-title>World Best Practices in Applying Mathematical and Statistical Crime Prediction Algorithms</trans-title></trans-title-group></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><name-alternatives><name name-style="eastern" xml:lang="ru"><surname>Туробов</surname><given-names>Алексей</given-names></name><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Turobov</surname><given-names>Alexey</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>Туробов Алексей Владимирович - аспирант Школы политических наук Факультета социальных наук Национального исследовательского университета «Высшая школа экономики»</p><p>Москва</p></bio><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Mr Alexey Turobov - Doctoral Candidate, School of Politics and Governance,National Research University “Higher School of Economics”</p><p>Moscow, 101000</p></bio><email xlink:type="simple">alturobov@yahoo.com</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><name-alternatives><name name-style="eastern" xml:lang="ru"><surname>Чумакова</surname><given-names>Мария</given-names></name><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Chumakova</surname><given-names>Maria</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>Чумакова Мария Алексеевна - кандидат психологических наук, доцент Департамента психологии Факультета социальных наук Национального исследовательского университета «Высшая школа экономики»</p><p>Москва</p></bio><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Dr Maria Chumakova - Associate Professor, School of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, National Research University – Higher School of Economics</p><p>Moscow, 101000</p></bio><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><name-alternatives><name name-style="eastern" xml:lang="ru"><surname>Вечерин</surname><given-names>Александр</given-names></name><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Vecherin</surname><given-names>Aleksandr</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>Вечерин Александр Викторович - кандидат психологических наук, старший преподаватель Департамента психологии Факультета социальных наук Национального исследовательского университета «Высшая школа экономики»</p><p>Москва</p></bio><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Dr Aleksandr Vecherin - Senior Lecturer, School of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, National Research University – Higher School of Economics</p><p>Moscow, 101000</p></bio><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-1"/></contrib></contrib-group><aff-alternatives id="aff-1"><aff xml:lang="ru"><institution>Национальный исследовательский университет «Высшая школа экономики»</institution><country>Россия</country></aff><aff xml:lang="en"><institution>National Research University “Higher School of Economics”</institution><country>Russian Federation</country></aff></aff-alternatives><pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2019</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>05</day><month>05</month><year>2025</year></pub-date><volume>17</volume><issue>4</issue><fpage>153</fpage><lpage>177</lpage><permissions><copyright-statement>Copyright &amp;#x00A9; Туробов А., Чумакова М., Вечерин А., 2025</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2025</copyright-year><copyright-holder xml:lang="ru">Туробов А., Чумакова М., Вечерин А.</copyright-holder><copyright-holder xml:lang="en">Turobov A., Chumakova M., Vecherin A.</copyright-holder><license xml:lang="ru" license-type="creative-commons-attribution" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xlink:type="simple"><license-p>Данная работа распространяется под лицензией Creative Commons Attribution 4.0.</license-p></license><license xml:lang="en" license-type="creative-commons-attribution" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xlink:type="simple"><license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.</license-p></license></permissions><self-uri xlink:href="https://www.intertrends.ru/jour/article/view/549">https://www.intertrends.ru/jour/article/view/549</self-uri><abstract><p>Сфера обеспечения безопасности наполняется новыми элементами (например, кибербезопасность, информационная безопасность, безопасность компьютерных сетей и т.д.); расширяется арсенал средств обеспечения безопасности (технологии, а также технические и организационные средства, включая телекоммуникационные каналы для сбора, формирования, обработки, передачи или приёма информации об угрозах безопасности и мерах по её укреплению), которые значительно укрепляются за счёт использования цифровых технологий. В данной работе проводится анализ современных методов и технологий прогнозирования преступности, применяемых в области национальной безопасности. Достижения в сфере науки о данных (Data Science) и работы с большими данными (Big Data) заложили научную основу для развития интеллектуального анализа данных (Intellectual Analysis, Predictive Analysis), на основании которого сформировалось математико-статистическое прогнозирование общественно опасных преступных деяний (антитеррористические алгоритмы, алгоритмы прогнозирования деятельности организованной преступности/банд). Цель статьи заключается в выявлении основных тенденций и потенциальных выгод применения цифровых технологий, а также определение вызовов, стоящих перед государствами при использовании математико-статистических методов прогнозирования преступности. Посредством мета-анализа научных разработок и практического применения алгоритмов прогнозирования преступности в разных странах (США, Китай, Япония, Сингапур, Индия) демонстрируется разнообразие подходов в применении прогностических систем. В первой части статьи представлены методологические и технические аспекты применения алгоритмов. Вторая часть содержит обзор национальных практик использования алгоритмов прогнозирования преступности в Индии, Японии и Сингапуре. Третья и четвёртая части посвящены более детальному рассмотрению стратегий и практик применения алгоритмов в США и Китае соответственно. Выбор стран-кейсов Индии, Японии и Сингапура определяется высокими показателями в различных инновационных и технологических рейтингах стран мира. Китай и США имеют большие технологические экономики, располагающие наиболее развитыми цифровыми технологиями. В результате метаанализа выявлены риски и выгоды применения математико-статистических алгоритмов прогнозирования преступности, в числе которых: «милитаризация» гражданской сферы; игнорирование социальных, культурных и политических аспектов жизни обществ, из-за чего утрачивается точность статистического прогноза; использование исторических данных (зарегистрированные преступления) содержат изначально заложенные расовые, половые, конъектурные предрассудки; существующие подходы не учитывают личностные особенности субъекта, также процессы принятия решения о совершении противоправных действий; отсутствие государственного контроля за соблюдением баланса между использованием алгоритмов и соблюдением прав граждан.</p></abstract><trans-abstract xml:lang="en"><p>The sphere of security provision is expanding and constantly bringing in new elements, including cybersecurity, information security, computer network security, etc.). The arsenal of security tools is also growing due to the ongoing proliferation of digital technologies (e.g. different technologies and telecommunication channels for collecting, forming, processing, transmitting or receiving information related to security of the state). The article provides an analysis of current methods and technologies for crime forecasting in the national security domain. Achievements in the Data Science and Big Data generated the scientific basis for the development of Intellectual Data Analysis (Intellectual Analysis, Predictive Analysis), based on which mathematical and statistical forecasting of socially dangerous, criminal acts was designed (e.g. anti-terrorism algorithms, algorithms for predicting the activities of organized crime/gangs). The article aims to identify major trends and potential benefits of digital technologies proliferation as well as the challenges that states face while using mathematical and statistical methods for predicting crime. The meta-analysis of scientific researches and implementation of crime forecasting algorithms in different countries (such as USA, China, Japan, Singapore, India) helps to demonstrate a pluralism of approaches in the application of forecasting systems. The first part of the article presents the methodological and technical aspects of criminal data mining. The second part provides an overview of national practices in using crime prediction algorithms by the examples of Singapore, Japan, and India. The third and fourth parts are devoted to a more detailed analysis of the strategies and tactics of using algorithms in the USA and China, respectively. The analysis reveals the risks and benefits inherent in the most frequently applied mathematical and statistical crime forecasting algorithms. First, it is the “militarization” of the civilian sphere. Second, the algorithms, which do not take into account the social, cultural and political features of a given society, lead to the loss of statistical significance of forecasting. Third, historical data (recorded crimes) often contain racial, sexual, and contextual biases. Fourth, existing approaches do not pay heed to personal characteristics of a subject, as well as decision-making processes not infrequently resulting in wrongful conduct. Finally, there is no state control over the balance between the use of algorithms and respect for human rights.</p></trans-abstract><kwd-group xml:lang="ru"><kwd>езопасность</kwd><kwd>прогнозирование преступности</kwd><kwd>данные</kwd><kwd>алгоритмы</kwd><kwd>цифровизация</kwd></kwd-group><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><kwd>security</kwd><kwd>crime forecasting</kwd><kwd>data</kwd><kwd>algorithms</kwd><kwd>digitalization</kwd></kwd-group></article-meta></front><back><ref-list><title>References</title><ref id="cit1"><label>1</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Гохман В.В., Третьяченко Д.А. Восемь прорывных технологий и их связь с геопространством // ArcReview 2019. №2 (89). URL: https://www.dataplus.ru/news/arcreview/detail.php?ID=27212&amp; SECTION_ID=1117</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ang R.P., Goh D.H. (2013). Predicting juvenile offending: A comparison of data mining methods. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology. Vol. 57. No. 2. P. 191–207. https://doi.org/10.1177/0306624X11431132</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit2"><label>2</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ang R.P., Goh D.H. Predicting juvenile offending: A comparison of data mining methods // International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology. 2013. Vol. 57. No. 2. P. 191–207. https:// doi.org/10.1177/0306624X11431132</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Bansal D., Bhambhu L. (2013). Execution of APRIORI Algorithm of Data Mining Directed Towards Tumultuous Crimes Concerning Women. International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer Science and Software Engineering. No. 3(9). 54 p.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit3"><label>3</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Bansal D., Bhambhu L. Execution of APRIORI Algorithm of Data Mining Directed Towards Tumultuous Crimes Concerning Women // International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer Science and Software Engineering. 2013. No. 3(9). 54 p.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Bendler J., Brandt T., Wagner S., Neumann D. (2014). Investigating Crime-To-Twitter Relationships in Urban Environments – Facilitating a Virtual Neighborhood Watch. Ecis. P. 1–16.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit4"><label>4</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Bendler J., Brandt T., Wagner S., Neumann D. Investigating Crime-To-Twitter Relationships in Urban Environments – Facilitating a Virtual Neighborhood Watch // Ecis. 2014. P. 1–16.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Besley T., Persson T. (2009). The origins of state capacity: Property rights, taxation, and politics. American Economic Review. Vol. 99. No. 4. P. 1218–1244. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.99.4.1218</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit5"><label>5</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Besley T., Persson. T. The origins of state capacity: Property rights, taxation, and politics // American Economic Review. 2009. Vol. 99. No. 4. P. 1218–1244 https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.99.4.1218</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Chu C.M., Ng K., Fong J., Teoh J. (2012). Assessing Youth Who Sexually Offended: The Predictive Validity Of The ERASOR, J-SOAP-II, and YLS/CMI in a Non-Western Context. Sexual Abuse: Journal of Research and Treatment. Vol. 24. No. 2. P. 153–174. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063211404250</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit6"><label>6</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Chu C.M., Ng K., Fong J., Teoh J. Assessing Youth Who Sexually Offended: The Predictive Validity Of The ERASOR, J-SOAP-II, and YLS/CMI // Non-Western Context. Sexual Abuse: Journal of Research and Treatment. 2012. Vol. 24. No. 2. P. 153–174. https://doi.org/10.1177/10790 63211404250</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Cornish P. (2010). Technology, strategy and counterterrorism. International Affairs. Vol. 86. No. 4. P. 875–888. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2346.2010.00917.x</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit7"><label>7</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Cornish P. Technology, strategy and counterterrorism // International Affairs. 2010. Vol. 86. No. 4. P. 875–888 https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2346.2010.00917.x</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ensign D., Friedler S.A., Neville S., Scheidegger C., Venkatasubramanian S. (2017). Runaway Feedback Loops in Predictive Policing. URL: http://arxiv.org/abs/1706.09847</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit8"><label>8</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ensign D., Friedler S.A., Neville S., Scheidegger C., Venkatasubramanian S. Runaway Feedback Loops in Predictive Policing // eprint arXiv. 2017. P. 1–12. Retrieved from http://arxiv.org/abs/ 1706.09847</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Gerber M.S. (2014). Predicting crime using Twitter and kernel density estimation. Decision Support Systems. Vol. 61. No. 1. P. 115–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dss.2014.02.003</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit9"><label>9</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Gerber M.S. Predicting crime using Twitter and kernel density estimation // Decision Support Systems. 2014. Vol. 61. No. 1. P. 115–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dss.2014.02.003</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Gokhman V.V., Tret'yachenko D.A. (2019) Vosem' proryvnykh tekhnologiy i ikh svyaz' s geoprostranstvom [Eight Disrupting Technologies and Their Connection to Geospace]. ArcReview. No. 2. URL: https:// www.dataplus.ru/news/arcreview/detail.php?ID=27212&amp;SECTION_ID=1117</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit10"><label>10</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Hecker S., Haklay M., Bowser A., Makuch Z., Vogel J., Bonn A. Citzen Science: Innovation in Open Science, Society and Policy // Citzen Science. London: UCL Press 2018. https://doi.org/10.14324/ 111.9781787352339</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Hecker S., Haklay M., Bowser A., Makuch Z., Vogel J., Bonn A. (2018). Innovation in Open Science, Society and Policy. In: Citizen Science / ed. by S. Hecker, M. Haklay, A. Bowser, Z. Makuch, J. Vogel, A. Bonn. London: UCL Press. P. 1–26. https://doi.org/10.14324/111.9781787352339</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit11"><label>11</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Hoffman S. Managing the State: Social Credit, Surveillance and the CCP’s Plan for China // AI, China, Russia, and the Global Order: Technological, Political, Global, and Creative. 2018. P. 42–47.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Hoffman S. (2018) Managing the State: Social Credit, Surveillance and the CCP’s Plan for China. AI, China, Russia, and the Global Order: Technological, Political, Global, and Creative / ed. by S. Ahmed. NSI Boston United States. P. 42–47.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit12"><label>12</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Liu J. Modernization and crime patterns in China // Journal of Criminal Justice. 2006. Vol. 34. No. 2. P. 119–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2006.01.009</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Liu J. (2006). Modernization and crime patterns in China. Journal of Criminal Justice. Vol. 34. No. 2. P. 119–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrimjus.2006.01.009</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit13"><label>13</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Lum K., Isaac W. To predict and serve // Significance. 2016. Vol. 13. P. 14–19. https://doi.org/10.1111/ j.1740-9713.2016.00960.x</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Lum K., Isaac W. (2016). To predict and serve? Significance. Vol. 13. No. 5. P. 14–19. https://doi.org/ 10.1111/j.1740-9713.2016.00960.x</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit14"><label>14</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Mande U., Srinivas Y., Murthy J.V.R. An Intelligent Analysis of Crime Data Using Data Mining &amp; Auto Correlation Models // International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA). 2012. Vol. 2. No 4. P. 149–153. URL: https://www.ijera.com/papers/Vol2_issue4/ U24149153.pdf</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Mande U., Srinivas Y., Murthy J.V.R. (2012). An Intelligent Analysis of Crime Data Using Data Mining &amp; Auto Correlation Models. International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications (IJERA). Vol. 2. No. 4. P. 149–153. URL: https://www.ijera.com/papers/Vol2_issue4/U24149153.pdf</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit15"><label>15</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Nakaya T., Yano K. Visualising crime clusters in a space-time cube: An exploratory data-analysis approach using space-time kernel density estimation and scan statistics // Transactions in GIS. 2010. Vol. 14. No. 3. P. 223–239. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9671.2010.01194.x</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Nakaya T., Yano K. (2010). Visualising crime clusters in a space-time cube: An exploratory data-analysis approach using space-time kernel density estimation and scan statistics. Transactions in GIS. Vol. 14. No. 3. P. 223–239. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9671.2010.01194.x</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit16"><label>16</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ngai N.P., Cheung C.K. Predictors of the likelihood of delinquency: A study of marginal youth in Hong Kong, China // Youth and Society. 2005. Vol. 36. No. 4. P. 445–470. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 0044118X04265090</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ngai N.P., Cheung C.K. (2005). Predictors of the likelihood of delinquency: A study of marginal youth in Hong Kong, China. Youth and Society. Vol. 36. No. 4. P. 445–470. https://doi.org/10.1177/ 0044118X04265090</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit17"><label>17</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Peeters R., Widlak A. The digital cage: Administrative exclusion through information architecture – The case of the Dutch civil registry’s master data management system // Government Information Quarterly. 2018. Vol. 35. No. 2. P. 175–183 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2018.02.003</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Peeters R., Widlak A. (2018). The digital cage: Administrative exclusion through information architecture – The case of the Dutch civil registry’s master data management system. Government Information Quarterly. Vol. 35. No. 2. P. 175–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.giq.2018.02.003</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit18"><label>18</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Peng C., Xueming S., Hongyong Y., Dengsheng L. Assessing temporal and weather influences on property crime in Beijing, China // Crime, Law and Social Change. 2011. Vol. 55. No. 1. P. 1–13. https://doi. org/10.1007/s10611-010-9264-3</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Peng C., Xueming S., Hongyong Y., Dengsheng L. (2011). Assessing temporal and weather influences on property crime in Beijing, China. Crime, Law and Social Change. Vol. 55. No. 1. P. 1–13. https:// doi.org/10.1007/s10611-010-9264-3</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit19"><label>19</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Roy S., Shah A., Srikrishna B.N., Sundaresan S. Building State capacity for regulation in India // Working paper No. 237. National Institute of Public Finance and Policy New Delhi. In: Regulation in India: Design, Capacity, Performance / ed. by D. Kapur, M. Khosla. Oxford: Hart Publishing, forthcoming 2019.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Roy S., Shah A., Srikrishna B.N., Sundaresan S. (2018). Building State capacity for regulation in India. Working paper No. 237. National Institute of Public Finance and Policy New Delhi. In: Regulation in India: Design, Capacity, Performance / ed. by D. Kapur, M. Khosla. Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2019. Forthcoming.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit20"><label>20</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Seo S., Chan H., Brantingham P.J., Leap J., Vayanos P., Tambe M., &amp; Liu Y. Partially Generative Neural Networks for Gang Crime Classification with Partial Information // ACM Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Ethics, and Society. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1145/3278721.3278758</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Seo S., Chan H., Brantingham P.J., Leap J., Vayanos P., Tambe M., Liu Y. (2018). Partially Generative Neural Networks for Gang Crime Classification with Partial Information. ACM Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Ethics, and Society. https://doi.org/10.1145/3278721.3278758</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit21"><label>21</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Tayal D.K., Jain A., Arora S., Agarwal S., Gupta T., Tyagi N. Crime detection and criminal identification in India using data mining techniques // AI and Society. 2014. Vol. 30. No. 1. P. 117–127. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00146-014-0539-6</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Tayal D. K., Jain A., Arora S., Agarwal S., Gupta T., Tyagi N. (2014). Crime detection and criminal identification in India using data mining techniques. AI and Society. Vol. 30. No. 1. P. 117–127. https://doi. org/10.1007/s00146-014-0539-6</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit22"><label>22</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Tufekci Z. (2014). Social Movements and Governments in the Digital Age: Evaluating a Complex Landscape. Journal of International Affairs. Vol. 68. No. 1. P. 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Tufekci Z. (2014). Social Movements and Governments in the Digital Age: Evaluating a Complex Landscape. Journal of International Affairs. Vol. 68. No. 1. P. 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324.004</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit23"><label>23</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Vohra N.N. (2012). National Security Concerns. India International Centre Quarterly. Vol. 38. No. 3/4, The Golden Thread: Essays in Honour of C.D. Deshmukh. P. 370–385. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41803992</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Vohra N.N. (2012). National Security Concerns. India International Centre Quarterly. Vol. 38. No. 3/4, The Golden Thread: Essays in Honour of C.D. Deshmukh. P. 370–385. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41803992</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit24"><label>24</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Wang L., Zhao J.S. (2016). Contemporary police strategies of crime control in U.S. and China: a comparative study. Crime, Law and Social Change. Vol. 66. No. 5. P. 525–537. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-016-9641-7</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Wang L., Zhao J.S. (2016). Contemporary police strategies of crime control in U.S. and China: a comparative study. Crime, Law and Social Change. Vol. 66. No. 5. P. 525–537. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10611-016-9641-7</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit25"><label>25</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Wanna J. (2018). Opening government: Transparency and engagement in the information age. In: Opening Government: Transparency and Engagement in the Information Age. Canberra: ANU Press. P. 3–26. https://doi.org/10.22459/og.04.2018.01</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Wanna J. (2018). Opening government: Transparency and engagement in the information age. In: Opening Government: Transparency and Engagement in the Information Age. Canberra: ANU Press. P. 3–26. https://doi.org/10.22459/og.04.2018.01</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit26"><label>26</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Yang Qiaomei. (2019). The smart city of Changsha, China. In: Anthopoulos L. (ed.) Smart City Emergence.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Yang Qiaomei. (2019). The smart city of Changsha, China. In: Anthopoulos L. (ed.) Smart City Emergence.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit27"><label>27</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Elsevier. 2019. P. 219–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816169-2.00010-9.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Elsevier. 2019. P. 219–241. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816169-2.00010-9.</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref></ref-list><fn-group><fn fn-type="conflict"><p>The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest present.</p></fn></fn-group></back></article>
