Strategies of Alliances of Continental and Sea Powers

The article attempts to determine the specifics of alliance formation of continental and maritime powers, due to the peculiarities of their geographical location. First, we consider existing literature to explain influence of spatial characteristics on large states’ participation in alliances. Further, we propose original typology of continental and maritime powers strategic motivations and their approaches to choosing allies. The presentation of the concept is accompanied by historical examples from the practice of the international system from the 16th century to the beginning of the 21st century, which justify the correctness of its deductive logic. In conclusion, we apply developed research framework to the analysis of Russian international obligations. It shows that the continental geographical position is significant, but not the only parameter that explains the logic of the Russian strategy and its alliance politics. The geographical position of maritime powers often leads them to various forms of international isolation. At the same time, as dependence on foreign markets, sources of capital and resources increases, as well as risks of accumulating significant resources in the hands of potential adversaries rises, the maritime powers begin to resort to international alliances as tools for projecting power to remote regions. For their part, the continental powers prefer alliances with their immediate neighbors as a mean of reducing the number of defensive lines and creating strategic buffers. For them, attempts to build relationships with remote partners are associated with significant risks, as they, as a rule, do not have sufficient competence in the sphere of control over sea communications. At the same time, creation of military-political coalitions of continental countries with remotely located sea powers aimed against dominant sea powers is strategically expedient, since it allows to shift the center of confrontation further from the boundaries of the continental power. Technological development in armaments and military equipment allows continental powers to project force for considerable distances with less resources.

1. Blagden D.W. (2011). Sea Powers, Continental Powers, and Balancing Theory. International Security. Vol. 36. No. 2. P. 190–202.

2. Clark C. M (2016). The sleepwalkers: How Europe went to war in 1914. N.Y.: Harper. 697 p.

3. Cymburskij V.L (1993). «Ostrov Rossiya»: perspektivy rossijskoj geopolitiki [“Island of Russia” Prospects of Russian Geopolitics]. Polis. Politicheskie issledovaniya. No. 5. P. 6 – 23.

4. Cymburskij V.L (2016). Morfologiya rossijskoj geopolitiki i dinamika mezhdunarodnyh sistem XVIII– XX vekov [Morfology of Russian Geopolitics and Dynamics of International System in 18th–20th Centuries]. M.: Knizhnyj mir.

5. Dugin A.G. (2000). Osnovy geopolitiki. Geopoliticheskoe buduschee Rossii. Myslit’ Prostranstovm [Foundations of Geopolitics. Geopolitical Future of Russia. To Think through Space] Moscow: ARKTOGEYA-tsentr. 924 p.

6. Fensterwald Jr. B (1958). The anatomy of American" isolationism" and expansionism. Part I. Journal of Conflict Resolution. Vol. 2. No. 2. P. 111–139.

7. Gaddis J. L (2005). Strategies of containment: a critical appraisal of American national security policy during the Cold War. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 484 p.

8. Haushoffer K. O geopolitike: Raboty raznykh let [About Geopolitics: Works of Various Years]. Moscow: Mysl’. 426 p.

9. Heath M. (1989). Unholy Alliance: Valois and Ottomans. Renaissance Studies. Vol. 3. No. 3. P. 303– 315.

10. Hepple L.W. (1986). The Revival of Geopolitics. Political Geography Quarterly. Supplement to Vol. 5. No. 4. October 1986. P. 21–36.

11. Il'in M.V. (1995). Problemy formirovaniya «ostrova Rossiya» i kontury ego vnutrennej geopolitiki [The Problems of Forming of the “island of Russia” and frames of its internal geopolitics]. Vestnik Moskovskogo universiteta. Ser. 12. №1. P. 37–45.

12. Istomin I. (2017). Sovremennaya zapadnaya teoriya voenno-politicheskikh al’yansov: dostizheniya i lakuny. Mezhdunarodnye protsessy. Vol. 15. No. 4. P. 93–114.

13. Kanet R. E (2006). The superpower quest for empire: The cold war and Soviet support for ‘wars of national liberation’. Cold War History. Vol. 6. No. 3. P. 331–352.

14. Kashin V. B. (2015). Kitajskaya kartina budushchego mira i mesto Rossii v nem [Chinese Vision of Future World and Russian Place in It]. Tetradi po konservatizmu. № 5. P. 159–165.

15. Kennedy P (2010). The rise and fall of the great powers. N.Y. Vintage. 677 p.

16. Kennedy P. (2017). The rise and fall of British naval mastery. Penguin.

17. Kornienko G. M. (1993). Kak prinimalos' reshenie o vvode sovetskih vojsk v Afganistan i ih vyvode [How the Decisions on Deployment of Soviet Troops in Afghanistan and Their Withdrawal Were Taken]. Novaya i novejshaya istoriya. № 3. S. 107–118.

18. Leeds B., Ritter J., Mitchell S., Long A. (2002). Alliance Treaty Obligations and Provisions, 1815-1944. International Interactions. Vol. 28. No. 3. P. 237–260.

19. Levy, J. S., Thompson, W. R. (2010). Balancing on Land and at Sea: Do States Ally against the Leading Global Power? International Security. Vol. 35. No. 1. P. 7–43.

20. Mackinder H. (1995). Geograficheskaya os' istorii [Geographic Axis of History]. Polis. Politicheskie issledovaniya. No 4. P. 162–169.

21. Mackinder, H.J. (1996). Democratic Ideals and Reality. – Washington, DC: National Defence University Press. 213 p.

22. Mackinder H. (2007). Kruglaya Zemlya i obretenie mira [Round Earth and Control of the World]. Kosmopolis. No. 16. URL: http://www.intelros.ru/index.php?newsid=357

23. Mahan A.T. (2002). Vliyanie morskoj sily na istoriyu 1660–1783 [The Influence of Sea Power on History 1660–1783]. St. Petersburg: Terra Fantastica. 634 p.

24. Mearsheimer, J. J (2014). The Tragedy of Great Power Politics. W.W. Norton & Company. New York, London. 561 p.

25. Modelski G., Thompson W. R (1988). Seapower in Global Politics, 1494–1993. London: Palgrave Macmillan. 380 p.

26. Morgenthau H. J. Politics among nations: the struggle for power and peace. – 5. ed. rev. – New York: Knopf, Cop. 1978. 650 p.

27. Narinskij M. M. (2008). Sovetskoe rukovodstvo: problema granic i sfery vliyaniya SSSR v 1941– 1946 godah [Soviet Leadership: the Problem of Borders and Spheres of Influence of the USSR]. Vestnik MGIMO Universiteta. No. 3. P. 3–13.

28. Ó Tuathail G., Dalby S. (1998). Introduction: Rethinking geopolitics: towards a critical geopolitics. In: Ó Tuathail G., Dalby S. (eds.). Rethinking Geopolitics. Routledge, London and New York. P. 13–27.

29. Popper K. R. (2010). Logika nauchnogo issledovaniya [Logic of Scientific Inquiry]. Moskva: AST : Astrel'. 565 s.

30. Pozdnyakov E.A. (1995). Geopolitika [Geopolitics]. Moscow: Progress-Kul’tura. 96 p.

31. Senokosov A. G. (2014). Evolyuciya vneshnepoliticheskogo kursa Velikobritanii v 1898–1904 gg.: ot «Blestyashchej izolyacii» k antigermanskoj Antante [Evolution of the Foreign Policy Course of Great Britain in 1898–1904: from “Splendid Psolation’ to the Anti-German Entante]. Vestnik RGGU. Seriya «Politologiya. Istoriya. Mezhdunarodnye otnosheniya. Zarubezhnoe regionovedenie. Vostokovedenie». No. 7 (129). P. 184–198.

32. Sulima E., Shepelev M. (2018). Geoistoriya kak paradigma osmysleniya mezhdunarodnykh otnoshenij [Geohistory As a Paradigm for Thinking about International Relations]. Mezhdunarodnye protsessy. Vol. 16. No. 2. P. 49–59.

33. Sushentsov A.A (2012). Strategiya voennogo prisutstviya SShA v Azii [Strategy of the U.S. Military Presence in Asia]. Mezhdunarodnye processy. Vol 10. No. 2 (29). P. 129–133.

34. Sushentsov A.A. (2010). Tipologiya povedeniya v mezhdunarodnykh konfliktakh [Typology of behavior in international conflicts]. Mezhdunarodnyye protsessy. Vol. 8. No. 3 (24). P. 70–84.

35. Posen B.R. (2003). Command of the Commons: The Military Foundation of U.S. Hegemony. International Security. Vol. 28. No. 1. P. 5–46.

36. Rosato S. (2015). The inscrutable intentions of great powers. International Security. Vol. 39. No. 3. P. 48–88.

37. Snyder G. H. (2007). Alliance politics. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 414 p.

38. Turner, F. J. (2010). The frontier in American history. Courier Corporation. 375 p.

39. Van Evera S. (1998). Offense, defense, and the causes of war. International Security. Vol. 22. No. 4. P. 5–43.

40. Vasil’chenko A.V. (2013). Sumrachnyj genij III Reikha. Karl Khauskhofer. Chelover, stoyavshij za Gitlerom [Gloomy Genius of the Third Reich. Karl Haushoffer. The Man, Who Stood behind Hitler]. Moscow: Veche. 301 p.

41. Voss G. (1945). Early Japanese isolationism. The Pacific Historical Review. Vol. 14. No.1. P. 13–35.

42. Waltz K.N. (1979). Theory of International Politics. Reading: Adison Wesley. 251 p.

43. Walt S. M. (1990). The Origins of Alliances. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. 321 p.