Public Diplomacy in Conflict Resolution

The world is undergoing significant transformation caused by large-scale cross-border activity. Modern communication and information technologies make interaction accessible to more people, while popular social networks provide a quick mobilization effect. In these conditions, diplomacy becomes much more complex and varied. It has two distinct vectors of influence on a foreign audience. The first vector is directed to the official structures (diplomats, politicians, etc.), while the second one (public diplomacy) – to non-governmental structures, business, people. The analysis shows that both vectors should be coordinated, but separated. Otherwise, diplomacy can be inefficient and block certain channels of influence. In addition, in the XXI public diplomacy acquires traits such as orientation to dialogue with public entities of foreign countries, extensive involvement of non-state actors. All these apply to situations of conflict. However, in a conflict situation public diplomacy has its own specifics. Thus, a coordination of parties involved in the conflict as mediators is especially important. Otherwise, the conflict can be amplified, or it may generate new conflicts. The article analyzes the opportunities and constraints of non-state actors in conflict management within the framework of public diplomacy. Particular attention is drawn to the tools that are used to achieve short-term and long-term objectives in a conflict. It is shown that in a conflict situation public diplomacy primarily focused on short-term goals that can be directed at ending the armed confrontation, but can – on the support of one of the parties in the conflict. To implement short-term goals media are intensively used. Educational and cultural programs are typically used for long-term goals. However, in situations of a conflict they may have a short-term goal as a demonstration effect, which symbolize the help of the state providing such programs. Russian public diplomacy, which in recent years has been given considerable attention, is not fully focused on a conflict situations, limited mainly by media activities.

1. Aall P. (1996). Nongovernmental Organizations and Peacemaking. Managing Global Chaos: Sources of and Responses to International Conflict. Ed. by Ch. A. Crocker and F.O. Hampson with P. Aall. Washington: United States Institute of Peace Press. P. 433-461.

2. Aall P. (2013). Building Interests, Relationships, and Capacity. In Managing Conflict in a World Adrift. Ed. by Ch. A. Crocker and F.O. Hampson, P. Aall. Washington: United States Institute of Peace Press. P. 409-427. Berridge G. (2010). Diplomacy: Theory and Practice. 4th edition. N.Y.: Palgrave, Macmillan. 282 p.

3. Burton J. (1969). Conflict and Communication: The Use of Controlled Communication in International Relations. L.: Alden Press. 246 p.

4. Chitty N. (2008). Australian Public Diplomacy Cultures. In Routledge Handbook of Public Diplomacy. Ed. by N. Snow, Ph. M. Taylor. N.Y., L.: Routledge. P. 314-324.

5. Copeland D. (2009). Guerrilla Diplomacy: Rethinking International Relations. Boulder: Lynne Rienner. 320 p.

6. Der Derian J. (1992). Antidiplomacy: Spies, Terror, Speed, and War. Cambridge (Mass.) & Oxford UK: Blackwell. 215 p.

7. Diamond L., McDonald J. (1993). Multi-Track Diplomacy: A System Approach to Peace. 2nd ed. Washington: Inst. for Multi-Track Diplomacy. 182 p.

8. Dolinskiy A. (2011). Diskurs o publichnoy diplomatii [Discourse on Public Diplomacy].

9. Dolinskiy A. (2011). Sovremennye mekhanizmy sotrudnichestva v ramkakh pyblichnoi diplomatii [Contemporary mechanisms of cooperation in the framework of public diplomacy] Dissrtatsiya na soiskaniye uchenoi stepeni kandidata polit. Nauk. M.: MGIMO University. 210 p.

10. Dolinskiy A. (2012). Chto takoye obchsestvennaya diplomatiya i zachem ona nuzhna Rossii [What is public diplomacy and what is it for Russia?]. Rossiyskiy Sovet po mezhdunarodnim delam. 12.09.2012. URL: http://russiancouncil.ru/inner/?id_4=791#top-content

11. Dolinskiy A. (2012). Publichnaya diplomatiya dlya biznessa, NPO i universitetov [Public diplomacy for businesses, NGOs, and universities]. Rossiyskiy Sovet po mezhdunarodnim delam. 12.09.2012. URL: http://russiancouncil.ru/inner/?id_4=2399#top-content/

12. Doob L.W. (1974). A Cyprus Workshop: An Exercise in Intervention Methodology. Journal of Social Psychology. Vol. 94, No. 2. P. 161-178. DOI: 10.1080/00224545.1974.9923203

13. Gotz N. (2011). Civil Society and NGO: Far from Unproblematic Concepts. In The Ashgate Research Companion to Non-State Actors. Ed. by B. Renalda. Burlington: Ashgate. P. 185-196.

14. Hall I. (2010). The Transformation of Diplomacy: Mysteries, Insurgencies and Public Relations. International Affairs. Vol. 86, No. 1. P. 247–256. DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2346.2010.00878.x

15. Kelman H. (1972). The Problem-Solving Workshop in Conflict Resolution. In Communication in International Politics. Ed. by R. L. Merritt. Urbana: University Press. P. 168-204.

16. Kelman H., Cohen S. (1979). Reduction of International Conflict: An Interaction Approach. In The Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations. Ed. by W.G. Austin, S. Worchel. Monterey: Brooks-Cole Publ. P. 288-303.

17. Kubyshkin A.I., Tsvetkova N.A. (2013). Publichnaya diplomatiya SShA [US public diplomacy]. М.: Aspekt Press. 271 p.

18. Lebedeva M.M. (2014). «Myagkaya sila» v otnoshenii Tzentralnoy Azii: uchastniki i ikh deystviya [Soft Power in Central Asia: Actors and Its Activities]. Vestnik MGIMO - Universiteta. No. 2 (35). P. 47-56.

19. Lebedeva M.M. (2008). Chto ugrozhaet Westphalu? [What Threatens Westphalian System] // Mezhdunarodnye protsessy. Vol. 6. No 1 (16). P. 117-121.

20. Lebedeva M.M. (1998). Razvitiye neofitcialnogo posrednichestva v sovremennom mire: tendentcii, problem, perspektivy [The development of non-official mediation in the contemporary world: trends, problems, prospects]. Vestnik MGU. Ser. 18. Sotsiologiya i politopogiya. No 3. P. 28-35.

21. Likhachev D.S. (1990). O natsionalnom kharaktere russkikh [On the Russian national character]. Voprosy filosofii. No. 4. P. 3-9.

22. Mokhovikova M. (2015). Vzaimodeistviye gosudarstva i grazhdanskogo obchshestva v Uzbekistane. Negosudarstvennye nekommercheskiye organizatsii [Interaction between state and civil society in Uzbekistan. Non-governmental organizations]. ed. by E.M. Kozhokina. М.: GrandKniga. 206 p.

23. Natsios A.S. (1997). An NGO Perspective. In Peacemaking in International Conflicts: Methods and

24. Techniques. Ed. by I.W. Zartman and J.L. Rasmussen. Washington D.C.: United States Institute of Peace. P. 337-361.

25. Panova E.P. (2010). Sila privlekatelnosti: ispolzovaniya ”myagkoy vlasti”v mirovoy politike [The power of attraction: the use of soft power in world politics]. Vestnik MGIMO - Universiteta. No. 4 (13). P. 91-97.

26. Panova E.P. (2011). Vysshee obrazovaniye kak potentsial myagkoj vlasti gosudarstva [Higher education as a potential soft power of a state]. Vestnik MGIMO - Universiteta. No. 2 (16). P. 157-161.

27. Risse Th. (2002). Transnational Actors and World Politics. In Handbook of International Relations. Ed. by W.Carsnaes, Th. Risse, B.A. Simmons. L., at al. Sage. P. 255-274.

28. Schelling Th. (1960). The Strategy of Conflict. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 309 p.

29. Snow N. (2008). Rethinking Public Diplomacy. In Routledge Handbook of Public Diplomacy. Ed. by N. Snow, Ph. M. Taylor. N.Y., L.: Routledge, P. 3-11.

30. Tsvetkova N.A. (2015). Publichnaya diplomatiya SShA [U.S. Public Diplomacy]. Mezhdunarodnye protsessy. Vol. 13. № 3 (42). P. 121-133.

31. Zollner O. (2008). German Public Diplomacy: The Dialogue of Cultures. In Routledge Handbook of Public Diplomacy. Ed. by N. Snow, Ph. M. Taylor. N.Y., L.: Routledge, P. 262-269.

32. Zonova T.V. (2013). Diplomatiya. Modeli, formy, metody [Diplomacy. Models, forms, methods]. М.: Aspekt Press, 2013. 348 p.